OXFORD GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR
PAGE
ed for the past (started), but they do not take
And, or (and but) can link verb phrases and also whole clauses. • 243or in questions, • 31.for my sister. (She can't write.)be, go, lie, live, sit, stand and stay.runs his own business.
(it starts).
Articles (e.g.
endings for number or gender. Pronouns (e.g.
many languages.
the), Possessives (e.g. my) and adjectives (e.g. good) do not havelime) have fewer forms than in 2 Word order
Word order is very important in English. As nouns do not have endings for subject
or object, it is the word order that shows which is which.
Subject Verb Object
The woman loved the man.
(She loved him.) The man loved the woman.
The subject-verb order is fixed, and we can change it only if there is a special
reason.
(He loved her.) 3 Verb phrases
A verb phrase can have a complex structure. There can be auxiliary verbs as well as
the ordinary verb.
I
I
We
climbed up the ladder.was climbing the mountain.shall be climbing to an altitude of eight thousand feet. The use of tenses and auxiliary verbs can be difficult for speakers of other
languages.
4 Prepositions
The use of prepositions in English can be a problem.
We flew here
on Friday. We left at two o'clock. Both prepositions and adverbs combine with verbs in an idiomatic way.
They were
waiting for the flight. The plane took off. There are many expressions involving prepositions that you need to learn as items
of vocabulary.
PAGE 6
2
The simple sentence
7 Summary
This story contains examples of different clause patterns.
AN UNLUCKY THIEF
A man walked into a hotel, saw a nice coat, put it over his arm and walked out
again. Then he tried to hitch a lift out of town. While he was waiting, he put the
coat on. At last a coach stopped and gave him a lift. It was carrying forty detectives
on their way home from a conference on crime. One of them had recently become
a detective inspector. He recognized the coat. It was his. He had left it in the hotel,
and it had gone missing. The thief gave the inspector his coat. The inspector
arrested him. 'It seemed a good idea at the time,' the man said. He thought himself
rather unlucky.
There are five elements that can be part of a clause. They are subject, verb, object,
complement and adverbial.
Basic clause patterns
Intransitive and transitive verbs
Subject Intransitive verb
• 8 A coach stopped.
Subject Transitive verb Object
The detective arrested the thief.
Linking verbs
Subject Verb Complement
• 9 The thief was rather unlucky.
The detective became an inspector.
Subject Verb Adverbial
The coat was over his arm.
The conference is every year.PAGE
7 8 Intransitive and transitive verbs Give, send
etc • 10 Subject Verb Object Object
The thief gave the inspector his coat.
All these seven clause patterns contain a subject and verb in that order. The
elements that come after the verb depend on the type of verb: for example,
whether it is transitive or not. Some verbs belong to more than one type. For
example,
Intransitive (without an object):
think can come in these three patterns.I'm thinking. Transitive (with an object):
Yes, I thought the same. With object and complement:
People will think me stupid. Extra adverbials
We can always add an extra adverbial to a clause.
• 12 A man walked into a hotel.
One day
a man walked casually into a hotel. And
We can join two phrases with
and or • 13and or or. The inspector and the thief
got out of the coach. Phrases in apposition
We can put one noun phrase after another.
• 14 Our neighbour Mr Bradshaw
is a policeman. 8 Intransitive and transitive verbs
1 An intransitive verb cannot take an object, although there can be a prepositional
phrase after it.
The man
Something unfortunate
was waiting at the side of the road.happened. The man
runs along the beach every morning. Intransitive verbs usually express actions (people doing things) and events (things
happening).
A verb can be intransitive in one meaning and transitive in another. For example,
run
is transitive when it means 'manage.He 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
PAGE 8 2 A transitive verb takes an object.
The man
stole a coat. Everyone
enjoyed the conference. The driver
The man
saw the hitch-hiker at the side of the road.had no money. Transitive verbs can express not only actions
(stole) but also feelings (enjoyed), perception
(saw) and possession (had). After some transitive verbs we can leave out the object when it would add little or
nothing to the meaning.
The man opposite was
A woman was
reading (a book). We're going to eat (a meal).driving (the coach). We can also leave out the object after these verbs:
ask/answer
(a question), draw/paint (a picture), enter/leave (a room/building), pass/fail
(a test/exam), play/win/lose (a game), practise (a skill), sing (a song), speak
(a few words), study (a subject). The following verbs can also be without an object if the context is clear:
choose, decide, hear, help, know, notice, see, start.
begin, NOTE
There must be an object after
The committee
discuss and deny.discussed the problem. He denied the accusation. 3 Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
Transitive Intransitive
The driver
He opened the door.
I broke a cup.
stopped the coach. Someone
rang the bell. The coach
stopped. The door
opened. The cup
broke. The bell
rang. The two sentences can describe the same event. The transitive sentence has as its
subject the agent, the person who made the event happen
intransitive sentence describes the event but does not mention the agent.
Here are some common verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:
(the driver). The alter develop increase shine tear
begin divide join shut turn
bend drive melt slide weaken
boil dry mix smash unite
break end move soften
burn finish open sound
change fly pour spread
close freeze ring stand
cook hang roll start
combine harden sail stop
continue hurt separate strengthen
crash improve shake swing
NOTE
Raise
is transitive, and rise is intransitive. The oil companies will
raise their prices. The price of oil will
rise.For lay and lie, •11(2) Note b.PAGE 9
9 Linking verbs 9 Linking verbs
1 Linking verb + complement
A complement is an adjective phrase or a noun phrase. A complement relates to
the subject: it describes the subject or identifies it (says who or what it is). Between
the subject and complement is a linking verb, e.g.
The hotel
be.was quiet. The thief seemed depressed. The book has
become a best-seller. It's getting dark. A week in the Lake District would
make a nice break. These are the most common verbs in this pattern.
+ adjective or noun phrase:
sound, stay
+
+
appear, be, become, look, prove, remain, seem,adjective: feel, get, go, grow, smell, taste, turnnoun phrase: make There are also some idiomatic expressions which are a linking verb + complement,
e.g.
run wild, wear thin.
burn low, come good, come true, fall asleep, fall ill, fall silent, ring true, run dry, We can use some linking verbs in other patterns.
Linking:
Your garden looks nice. Intransitive:
We looked at the exhibition. NOTE
a After
identifying the subject.
seem, appear, look and sound, we use to be when the complement is a noun phrase The woman
seemed to be Lord Melbury's secretary. NOT
The woman seemed Lord Melbury's secretary. But we can leave out
to be when the noun phrase gives other kinds of information. The woman
seemed (to be) a real expert. For American usage, • 303(1).
b There is a special pattern where a complement occurs with an action verb, not
a linking verb.
We
He walked
arrived exhausted.away a free man. I
came home really tired one evening. We use this pattern in a very small number of contexts. We can express the same meaning
in two clauses:
We were exhausted when we arrived. 2 Linking verb + adverbial
An adverbial can be an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase or noun phrase. An
adverbial after a linking verb relates to the subject. It often expresses place or time,
but it can have other meanings.
The coat
was here. The conference is every year. The drawings
lay on the table. I'm on a diet. Joan Collins
lives in style. The parcel went by air.Linking verbs with adverbials are 2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
PAGE 10 10
Give, send etc Verbs like
adverbial. There are some examples in this conversation, which takes place in a
department store.
give and send can have two objects, or they can have an object and an CLAIMING BACK TAX
Customer:
I understand I can claim back the tax I pay.
I've bought these sweaters, and I'm taking them home to Brazil. Clerk:
That's right. Have you filled in a form? Customer:
Yes, and I've got the receipts here. Clerk:
officer the form
Right. Now, when you go through British Customs, you give the customswith the receipts. Customer:
I give the form to the Customs when I leave Britain? Clerk:
That's right. They'll give you one copy back and keep one themselves. Customer:
Uh-huh. Clerk:
envelope.
Now I'll give you this envelope. You send the copy back to us in the Customer:
I post it to you. Clerk:
That's right. Customer:
And how do I get the money? Clerk:
Oh, we send you a cheque. We'll send it off to you straight away. 1 Two objects
When the verb has two objects, the first is the indirect object and the second is the
direct object.
Indirect object Direct object
You give the customs officer the form.
We send you a cheque.
The man bought the woman a diamond ring.
I can reserve you a seat.
Here the indirect object refers to the person receiving something, and the direct
object refers to the thing that is given.
2 Object + adverbial
Instead of an indirect object, we can use a prepositional phrase with
to or for. Direct object Prepositional
phrase
I give the form
You send the copy
The man bought a diamond ring
I can reserve a seat
to the Customs.to us.for the woman.for you.The adverbial comes after the object.PAGE 11
10 Give, send etc 3 Which pattern?
In a clause with
officer the form
what information is new. The new information goes at the end of the clause.
give, send etc, there is a choice of pattern between give the customsand give the form to the customs officer. The choice depends on I'll give you
this envelope. In the conversation
new information, so it comes at the end.
Compare the patterns in these sentences.
Claiming back tax, this envelope is the point of interest, the He left his children
five million pounds. (The amount of money is the point of interest.)
He left all his money to
a dog's home. (Who receives the money is the point of interest.)
NOTE
a The adverbial or indirect object is often necessary to complete the meaning.
He handed the receipt
to the customer. But sometimes it is not necessary to mention the person receiving something.
You'll have to
show your ticket on the train. (It is obvious that you show it to the ticket inspector.)
I'm writing a letter.
(You don't want to say who you are writing to.)
b Most verbs of speech cannot take an indirect object, but we can use a phrase with
The man said nothing
to.(to the police). But
tell almost always has an indirect object. • 266 The man told
the police nothing. 4 Pronouns after
give, send etc When there is a pronoun, it usually comes before a phrase with a noun.
We send
He had lots of money, but he left
you a cheque.it to a dogs' home. When there are two pronouns after the verb, we normally use
We'll send it off
I've got a ticket for Wimbledon. Norman bought it
to or for.to you straight away.for me. 5
To or for? Some verbs go with
He handed the receipt
Tom got drinks
to and some with for.to the customer.for everyone. With
pay, post, promise, read, sell, send, show, take, teach, tell, throw, write.
to: award, bring, feed, give, grant, hand, leave (in a will), lend, offer, owe, pass, With
save, spare.
for: bring, buy, cook, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, make, order, pick, reserve, NOTE
a
Bring goes with either to or for. b For meaning 'to help someone' can go with very many verbs.
I'm writing a letter 2
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 11
Call, put etc 1 Verb + object + complement
Compare these two kinds of complement.
Subject Subject Object Object
complement complement
The driver was tired. The journey made the driver tired.
He became president. They elected him president.
The subject complement relates to the subject of the clause; • 9. The object
complement relates to the object of the clause. In both patterns
tired relates to the driver,
and president relates to he/him. Here are some more sentences with an object complement.
The thief thought himself
rather unlucky. They called the dog Sasha. The court found him
guilty of robbery. We painted the walls bright yellow. I prefer my soup
hot. Here are some verbs in this pattern.
With adjective or noun phrase:
make, paint, prefer, prove, think, want
believe, call, consider, declare, find, keep, leave, like, With adjective:
drive, get, hold, pull, push, send, turn With noun phrase:
appoint, elect, name, vote 2 Verb + object + adverbial
The adverbial in this pattern typically expresses place.
The man put the coat
over his arm. We keep the car in the garage. He got the screw
into the hole. The path led us through trees. NOTE
a
Leave can come in this pattern, but forget cannot. I
left my umbrella at home. But NOT I forgot my umbrella at home. b
The woman
Lie
Lay (past: laid) comes in the same pattern as put.laid a blanket on the ground.(past: lay) is a linking verb which takes an adverbial. • 9(2) The woman
lay in the sunshine. 12 Extra adverbials
1 Look at these clause patterns.
Subject Verb Adverbial
The conference is
every year. Subject Verb Object Adverbial
He put the coat
over his arm. These adverbials cannot be left out. They are necessary to complete the sentence.
PAGE 13
13 And and or 2 We can add extra adverbials to any of the clause patterns.
At last
The coach was carrying detectives
He
The conference is every year,
At once
He
He
a coach stopped.on their way home from a conference on crime.had recently become a detective inspector.presumably.the thief gave the inspector his coat.probably considered himself rather unlucky.casually put the coat over his arm. These extra adverbials can be left out. They are not necessary to complete the
sentence.
For details about the position of adverbials, • 208. An extra adverbial does not
affect the word order in the rest of the sentence, and the subject-verb order stays
the same.
At last
a coach stopped. NOTE
Another extra element is the name or description of the person spoken to. As well as in
statements, it can come in questions and imperatives.
You're in trouble,
Come on
my friend. Sarah, what are you doing?everybody, let's go! 13
And and or 1 We can link two or more phrases with
noun phrases.
and or or. Here are some examples with The man and the woman
were waiting. The man, the woman and the child
were waiting. Wednesday or Thursday
would be all right. Wednesday, Thursday or Friday
And
2 We can use
would be all right.or or usually comes only once, before the last item.and and or with other kinds of words and phrases. It
was a cold and windy day. (adjective) He waited
fifteen or twenty minutes. (number) The work went
smoothly, quietly and very efficiently. (adverb phrase) NOTE
a We can use two adjectives together without a linking word, e.g.
b We can use two complements or two adverbials with
kinds of phrase, such as an adjective and noun phrase.
a cold, windy day. • 202and or or even if they are different The book has become
famous and a best-seller. We can meet here or in town. The hotel was
quiet and well back from the road. 3 Compare these two sentences.
He stole
a hat and a coat. He stole a
hat and coat. In the first sentence
links two nouns
between the two items, that they belong together.
and links two noun phrases (a hat, a coat); in the second it(hat, coat). The second sentence suggests that there is a link He stole
a hat and a typewriter. (not linked) He stole a
cup and saucer. (belonging together) NOTE
a
b For And, or (and but) can link verb phrases and also whole clauses. • 243or in questions, • 31.for my sister. (She can't write.)be, go, lie, live, sit, stand and stay.runs his own business.
Verbs take a few endings such as
endings for person, except in the third person singular of the present tense
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