JOHN EASTWOOD OXFORD GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PAGE 41

35 Echo questions and echo tags

2 Echo tags

We form an echo tag like an ordinary question tag. • 34(1). A positive statement

has a positive tag, and a negative statement has a negative tag. (But • Note c.)

We're moving house soon. ~ Oh, are you?

Max played the part brilliantly. ~ Did he really?

The boss isn't very well.

~ Isn't she?

These tags express interest in what someone has just said. Oh, are you? means 'Oh,

really?' The voice usually rises.

Oh,

& are you? Did he & really?

But if the voice falls, this means that the speaker is not interested. • 54(2c)

NOTE

a An echo tag is sometimes without inversion.

We're moving house soon. ~ You are?

b After a positive statement, there can be a short statement + echo tag.

We're moving house soon.

~ You are, are you?

Like a simple echo tag, this also expresses interest. Although the information is new, there

is a suggestion that it was expected: You are, are you? I thought so. But if the short

statement contradicts the previous sentence, this expresses surprise or even disbelief.

We're moving house soon.

My brothers can't swim. ~ They can, can't they?

~ You aren't, are you?

c We can use a negative tag in reply to a positive statement. This expresses agreement.

Max played the part brilliantly.

~ Yes, didn't he?

It's a lovely day.

~ It is, isn't it?

That was fun. ~ Yes, wasn't it?

The information is already known; both speakers saw Max playing the part.

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5

Leaving out and replacing words

36 Summary

Avoiding repetition

We sometimes leave out or replace words to avoid repeating them. The meaning

must be clear from the context.

Leaving out words after the auxiliary

• 38

Have you seen the film? ~ Yes, I have.• 39

We didn't get the job finished, although we were hoping to.

Leaving out words after a question word

• 40

This photo was taken years ago. I forget where.• 41

Adrian chose a steak and Lucy spaghetti.• 42

Leaving out words at the beginning of a sentence

Enjoying yourself?

Patterns with so, neither etc

• 43

I've seen the film.

We were hoping to finish the job, but we didn't manage to do so.

Have you seen the film?~ Yes, I think so.

You're in this photo, look.

The economy is healthy now, but will it remain so?

~ So ~ Oh, so I am.

Some other ways of avoiding repetition

• 44

We need some matches. Have we got any?

I saw the film, but I didn't like it.• 45

Special styles

Words can be left out in special styles: in labels, newspaper headlines, instructions

and postcards, and in note style.

NOTE For patterns with a predicative adjective, e.g. although tired, • 199(5c).

PAGE 43 38 Leaving out words after the auxiliary

1 We sometimes leave out a word or phrase, or we replace it by another word such as

a pronoun. Here is part of a real conversation in a shop.

CHOOSING A JACKET

Assistant: There's this rather nice rose pink, or two or three nice blues, burgundy,

Customer: Are they all the same price?

Assistant: Yes. These are cotton, the best cotton one can get. The best quality. And

Customer: It's a nice colour though.

(from M. Underwood and P. Barr Listeners)

When the customer went into the shop, she asked to look at jackets. While she and

the assistant are looking at the jackets, there is no need to repeat the word jacket. It

is clear from the situation what the topic of the conversation is.

. . . and here is one that's a very nice colour. (= here is a jacket...)

I can show it to you in the daylight. (= ...

These

2

There's this rather nice rose pink, or two or three nice blues, burgundy, and here is

one that's a very nice colour.

These are cotton, the best cotton one can get.

The assistant wants to emphasize that the colours are all nice and that the material

is cotton.

Repeating words in conversation can sometimes make things easier to express and

to understand. • 53(1a)

3 Sometimes the words that are left out or replaced come later, not earlier.

If you want to, you can pay by credit card.

(= If you want to pay by credit card,...)

After she had had a cup of tea, Phyllis felt much better.

(= After Phyllis had had...)

Here she refers forward to Phyllis, which comes later in the sentence.

38 Leaving out words after the auxiliary

1 A sentence can end with an auxiliary if the meaning is clear from the context.

I'm getting old. ~ Yes, I'm afraid you are.

Kate hadn't brought an umbrella. She was pleased to see that Sue had.

I don't want to answer this letter, but perhaps I should.

Can you get satellite TV? We can.

If the verb is in a simple tense, we use a form of do.

We can also end a sentence with the ordinary verb be.

5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 44

The stress can be on the auxiliary or the subject, whichever is the new information.

Yes, I'm afraid you 'are.

She was pleased to see that 'Sue had.

NOTE The auxiliary cannot be a short form or weak form.

NOT She was pleased to see that Sue'd-.

2 Usually everything after the auxiliary is left out.

I'm getting old.

~ Yes, I'm afraid you are.

After are we leave out getting old. But there are some exceptions to this.

a We do not leave out not/n't.

b Sometimes we have to use two auxiliary verbs. When the first is a new word, we

cannot leave out the second.

Have the team won?~ Well, everyone's smiling, so they must have.

I don't know if Tom is still waiting. He might be.

When will the room be cleaned? ~ It just has been.

Here must, might and has are not in the previous sentence.

But when the two auxiliaries are both in the previous sentence, then we can leave

out the second.

The corridor hasn't been cleaned, but the room has (been).

You could have hurt yourself. ~ Yes, I could (have).

c In British English do is sometimes used after an auxiliary.

I don't want to answer this letter, but perhaps I should (do).

Have the team won?~ Well, everyone's smiling, so they must have (done).

Here do = answer the letter, and done = won.

d There can be an adverbial or a tag.

It's a nice colour though.

~ Yes, it is, isn't it?

Is there a market today? ~ I don't know. There was yesterday.

Here a market is left out of the answer, but yesterday's new information.

3 A short question consists of an auxiliary + subject.

I've seen the film before. Have you?~ No, I haven't.

I wanted Helen to pass her test.

Here it is clear from the context that And did she? = And did she pass her test?

39 Leaving out an infinitive clause

1 When there is no need to repeat a to-infinitive clause, we can leave it out.

To

Would you like to join us for lunch?

~ Yes, I'd love to.

Jane got the job, although she didn't expect to.

You've switched the machine off. I told you not to, didn't I?

I haven't washed up yet, but I'm going to.

But we repeat an auxiliary after to.

PAGE 45 42 Leaving out words at the beginning of a sentence

2

I don't work as hard as I ought (to).

Take one of these brochures if you want (to).

I haven't done as much work today as I'd like to have.

Jane was chosen for the job, although she didn't expect to be.Sometimes we can also leave out to.

We usually leave out to after an adjective.

We need people to serve refreshments. Are you willing?

NOTE

We usually leave out to after like but not after would like.

3 We can also leave out a bare infinitive (without to).

(= ... let me borrow his cassettes.)

We can go somewhere else if you'd rather.

(= ...

40 Leaving out words after a question word

if you'd rather go somewhere else.)

We can leave out the words after a question word or phrase rather than repeat

them.

The road is closed to traffic. No one knows why.

I'm going to the dentist this afternoon.

~ Oh, what time?

I put the certificate somewhere, and now I can't remember where.

When the question word is the subject, the auxiliary can come after it.

Something rather strange has happened.

~ What (has)?

41 Leaving out the verb

When there are two sentences with the same pattern and the same verb, then we

do not need to repeat the verb.

The new warehouse contains furniture and the old one electrical goods.

(= ...

Everton have played ten games but Liverpool only eight.

(= ...

This happens only in rather formal English.

42 Leaving out words at the beginning of

a sentence

In informal English we can leave out some kinds of words from the beginning of a

sentence if the meaning is clear without them.

Ready? ~ Sorry, no. Can't find my car keys.

~ Doesn't matter. We can go in my car.

~ OK. ~ Better get going, or we'll be late.means 'Are you ready?', and it is clear that the question refers to the person

Ready?

spoken to. Doesn't matter means 'It doesn't matter', and the meaning is clear

without it. The same thing happens in informal writing, for example in postcards.

• 45(4)

5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 46

1 Statements

We can leave out the subjects I and it.(~ I can't find ...)

Can't find my keys.

Hope you have a good time.

Feels colder today.

2 Yes/no questions

We can leave out the auxiliary or the ordinary verb be from a yes/no question.

Your problem been sorted out?

Everything all right?

We can sometimes leave out both the subject and the auxiliary or the subject and

the ordinary verb be, especially if the subject is you or there.Are you tired?)

Tired? (=

Need to borrow money? Just give us a ring.

Any free seats in here?

3 Leaving out a/an and the

We can sometimes leave out these words before the subject.

Cup of tea is what I need.

Television's broken down.

4 Leaving out an imperative verb

We can sometimes leave out an imperative verb. The verb is usually be or

expresses movement.

Careful.

This way, please.

43 Patterns with so, neither etc

1 Too, either, so and neither/nor

a After a clause there can be a short addition with too or either. The positive pattern

is subject + auxiliary + too. The negative is subject + auxiliary + n't+ either.~ You are, too.

In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do.~ I do, too.~ This one doesn't either.

We can also use be on its own as an ordinary verb.

I'm tired.

~ I am, too.

PAGE 47 43 Patterns with so, neither etc

b An addition to a positive statement can also have this pattern with 50.

I like chocolate. ~ So do I. You're beautiful. ~ So are you.

Children should behave themselves, and so should adults.

So

here means the same as too.

There is inversion.

NOT I like chocolate. ~ So I do.

For So I do, • (4).

c An addition to a negative statement can also have this pattern with neither or nor.~ Neither/Nor have we.and nor mean the same as not... either.

NOTE

a There is no difference in meaning between neither and nor, but nor is a little more formal.

b The first sound in either/neither is /i:/ in the USA and usually /ai/ in Britain.

d In these examples a negative addition follows a positive statement, and vice versa.

I'm hungry now. ~ Well, I'm not.

We haven't got a dishwasher.

~ We have.

2 Do so, do it and do thatand do it refer to an action which is clear from the context. Do so is a little

Do so

formal.

Anna had often thought of murdering her husband, but she hesitated to actually

do so/do it.

I wanted to jump, but I just couldn't do it.

Here the stress is on do, not on so/it. We are interested in whether or not someone

does the action.

When do that refers to an action, the stress is usually on that.~ Oh, I wouldn't do that if I were you.

Here we are interested in or surprised at what kind of action it is.

3 So and not replacing a clause

a So can stand for a whole clause.

Will you be going out? ~ Yes, I expect so.

I'm not sure if the shop stays open late, but I think so.

Can the machine be repaired?

'~ I hope so.

Has the committee reached a decision?~ Well, it seems so.

I'm travelling round the world.

~ 7s that so?

Here I expect so means 'I expect I'll be going out.' We cannot leave out so or use it.

NOT Yes, I expect. and NOT Yes, I expect it.

b We can use these verbs and expressions in this pattern with so: be afraid,• (2), expect, guess, hope, imagine,

We do not use know or be sure in this pattern.

The shop stays open late.

~ Yes, I know. NOT Yes, I know so.

~ Are you sure? NOT Are you sure so?

5

c There are two ways of forming a negative pattern.

Negative verb + so: Will you be going out? ~ I don't expect so.

Positive verb + not: Is this watch broken?~ I hope not.

Some verbs can form the negative with either pattern, e.g. I don't suppose so or

I suppose not.

Expect, imagine

more usual than I think not, which is rather formal.

Assume, be afraid, guess, hope, presume

Is this picture worth a lot of money? ~ I'm afraid not.

There's no use waiting any longer.

and suspect form the negative with not.~ I guess not.

NOTE

Compare the different meanings with say.

d With a few verbs, so can come at the beginning of the sentence.

Mark and Susan are good friends. ~ So it seems./So it appears.

They're giving away free tickets. Or so they say, anyway.

e So and not can replace a clause after if.

We can also use not after the adverbs certainly, of course, probably, perhaps, maybe

and possibly.

4 So in short answers

A short answer with so can express agreement. The pattern is so + pronoun +

auxiliary or be.

This pattern has a different meaning to a yes/no short answer.

This glass is cracked.

~ Yes, it is. I meant to throw it away.

So it is

5 So, that way and the same

a So can replace an adjective after become and remain.(= become serious)

So

The situation isn't serious yet, but it might get that way.

is rather formal here. In informal English we use get/stay that way.

We can use so with more or less.

PAGE 49 44 Some other ways of avoiding repetition

b The same can replace a phrase or clause already mentioned.

Happy New Year! ~ Thank you. (The) same to you.

Monday was beautiful, and Tuesday was the same.

The others think we should give up the idea, and I think the same.

Do the same

When the mayor lifted his glass to drink, everyone else did the same.

(= everyone else lifted their glasses, too)

NOTE

We can use the same way after feel.

6 Overview: uses of so

Use Example Meaning

• 43(1) expressing addition I'm hungry. ~ So 'too, also'am I.

• 43(2) after do If you wish to look round, (do so = look

you may do so.

• 43(3) replacing a clause Have we got time?~ (think so = think

I think so.

• 43(4) expressing agreement The coach has arrived. ~ So 'I see/remember

it has.

• 43(5a) replacing an adjective Things have been difficult, (less so = less

but they should become

less so.

• 212 expressing degree The view was so nice. 'very'

He does talk so.

• 247 expressing reason I was tired, so I went to bed. 'therefore'

• 252 expressing purpose I got up early so (that) I 'in order that'

wouldn't be late.

44 Some other ways of avoiding repetition

1 If the meaning is clear from the context, we can leave out a noun after a number or

other quantifier, a demonstrative, or a superlative adjective.

It's got one pocket.

I've got some chocolate here. Would you like some?

How do you like the photos? ~ I think this is the nicest.

~ No, it's got two, look.

We cannot leave out the whole noun phrase.

NOT I've got some chocolate here. Would you like?

2 In some contexts we can use one/ones. • 188

I wanted a big packet, not a small one.

3 We can use a personal pronoun or possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase.

When Monica got the invitation, she felt pleased.

I forgot my invitation, but Monica remembered hers.

5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 50

4 It, this or that can replace a clause.

Terry can't get a job, but it doesn't seem to bother him.

(it

I hear the shop is closing down.

~ Who told you that?

(that =

5 The adverbs here, there, now and then can replace an expression of place or time.

I left the bag on the seat, and when I got back, it wasn't there.

When I was young, we didn't have a television. Things were different then.

(= when I was young)

45 Special styles

In some special styles of English, words are left out to save space.

1 Signs and labels

A sign or label identifies the thing it is written on or tells us something about it.

Meaning

On a building Town Hall 'This is the town hall.'

On a door Office 'This room is the office.'

On a packet Automatic dishwasher 'This packet contains automatic

powder

On a car For sale 'This car is for sale.'

2 Newspaper headlines

Alan

Actor dies

PM angry

Six arrested in raid

3 Instructions

The

instruction booklet.

Open battery compartment cover by pushing in direction of arrow.

(=

of the arrow.)

When an instruction is written on the thing it refers to, then there is often no need

to use the noun.

Handle with care.

Do not cover.
(on a heater)(on a parcel)Open the battery compartment cover by pushing in the directionis sometimes left out of instructions. Here is an example from a camera(= Six people have been arrested in a raid.)(= The Prime Minister is angry.)(= An actor has died.)and the, auxiliary verbs and be are often left out of headlines.dishwasher powder.'(= on the seat)that the shop is closing down)= that Terry can't get a job)

'a lot'difficult)that...'we've got time)round)

The others think we should give up the idea, and I feel the same (way).

can refer to an action already mentioned.

It's generally pretty busy here - more so in summer, of course.

The situation is not yet serious, but it may become so.

~ So it is. means here that the speaker notices the crack for the first time.I hadn't noticed.

You've made a mistake here. ~ Oh, so I have. Thank you.

Did you open my letter? ~ Certainly not.

Do you want your money to work for you? If so, you'll be interested in our Super

Savers account.

Have you got transport? If not, I can give you a lift.

Is the illness serious? ~ I don't know. The doctor didn't say so.

~ No, it isn't. The doctor said not.

They are appear, believe, say, seem and suppose.and think usually form the negative with so. I don't think so is

LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS PAGE 48

it appears/appeared, assume, be, believe, do

presume, say, it seems/seemed, suppose, suspect, tell (someone), think.

I might murder my husband.

The ham didn't taste very nice. ~ Neither/Nor did the eggs.

Neither

Barbara can't drive, and neither/nor can her husband.

We haven't got a dishwasher.

That torch doesn't work.

I like chocolate.

Barbara can't drive, and her husband can't either.

You're cheating.

(= Come this way, please.)(= Be careful.)(= The television ...)(= A cup of tea...)

(= Are there any free seats ... ?)(= Do you need ... ?)(= Is everything... ?)(= Has your problem ... ?)(= It feels colder today.)(= I hope ...)but Liverpool have only played eight games.)and the old one contains electrical goods.)

I wanted to borrow Tim's cassettes, but he wouldn't let me.

Take one of these brochures if you like.

Take one of these brochures if you'd like to.

stands for the whole clause.~ And did she? ~ Yes.

What did you have for breakfast? ~ I didn't. I'm not eating today.

(emphasis on the person)(emphasis on the fact)

It's a nice colour. At least, I think it is.

I don't enjoy parties as much as my wife does.

But we sometimes repeat things for emphasis.(= These jackets are ...)are cotton. show the jacket...)

also a very nice green - I'm afraid I haven't the size fourteen.

and here is one that's a very nice colour. I can show it to you in the daylight. And

this one runs at sixty-nine ninety-five.

37 Avoiding repetition

have I.(= Are you enjoying yourself?)

Leaving out the verb

Leaving out an infinitive clause

• 37

Max played the part brilliantly. ~ He did, did he?

My brothers can't swim. ~ Can't they?